Introduction

In 2004, just over three million students graduated from high schools across the United States.^[1] More than 1,488,000 of them enrolled in a college the same year.^[2] But by 2005, 364,000 of them had dropped out.^[3] This means that, as the U.S. Army struggled to meet its enlistment quota, these hundreds of thousands of individuals were not being actively targeted by the U.S. Army’s 2005 marketing team; it was focused instead on high school students. While this is not an enormous number when viewed on a national scale, the ability to reach this group of students who had withdrawn from college certainly could have alleviated the gap of 6,600 recruits in the 2005 enlistment quota.^[4] And this was not a one-time missed opportunity; it is a pattern that bears analysis.

This monograph will examine the U.S. Army’s entry into marketing following the end of U.S. military conscription: What has prompted its development and implementation? It will subsequently focus on the four recent periods when the U.S. Army failed to meet its enlisted recruiting quota: 2005, 2018, 2022 and 2023. What did the marketing campaign to reach potential recruits look like in each of those four years? Such analysis will enable a critical review of relevant methods and demonstrate that the U.S. Army’s target demographic was not significantly changed, despite modernizing communication methods, until at least 2023.^[5]

This monograph will also examine the increased marketing opportunities that come with targeting college students who have withdrawn before graduating, specifically in light of the larger pool of potential recruits when compared to previous marketing strategies. While such a shift in strategy will not singlehandedly solve the U.S. Army’s recruiting challenges, it will nonetheless support the line of effort of acquiring talent in the Army People Strategy of 2019.^[6]

Literature Review

One of the aims of this monograph is to demonstrate that research supports marketing to the people who do not complete college—though it is based on the age of recruits, not their level of education. A 2014 study based on a 2008 survey conducted by the RAND Corporation found that most U.S. Army recruits do not enlist immediately after high school.^[7] Data was collected from 5,000 new enlistees; roughly 20 percent enlisted immediately after high school while the other 80 percent enlisted later. This data was collected during the spring and fall of 2008, toward the end of basic training. The reasons given for waiting to enlist included lack of employment at home, not doing well during a two- or four-year college program, or looking for a second chance for increased economic or career opportunity. Of note, those who waited to enlist were more likely to walk into a recruiting center on their own; once in the U.S. Army, these same individuals performed as well or better than individuals joining immediately after high school. The authors of this study stated that current high school students remained the most important U.S. Army recruiting demographic based on size, but that the survey results indicated that developing a marketing strategy to reach older individuals “could be fruitful.”

High school students historically represented the core of the U.S. Army’s recruitment strategy; recruiters still canvas the high school student population to generate leads. This access is provided by law, which mandates that secondary schools (high schools) receiving federal funding provide student contact information to U.S. military recruiters, although parents can opt-out of contact.^[8] However, law also mandates that postsecondary institutions (colleges and universities) that receive federal funding must provide contact information for students and allow U.S. military recruiters on campus.^[9] In theory, or at least legally, U.S. Army recruiters have the same access to colleges that they do to high schools.

A 2022 RAND study, based on research from 2019, found that overall, “individuals who enlist over the age of twenty-one perform better as soldiers on several metrics.”^[10] This study noted that older recruits were more likely to complete their full enlistment contract after graduating basic training and that they were also more likely to re-enlist.^[11] It did concede that older recruits were more likely to fail to complete basic training than those enlisting immediately after high school, but that identifying the specific reasons for that failure would need additional research, as the finding was based on administrative information. It also noted that recruits over the age of 21 might need additional time expenditure from a recruiter for reasons such as requiring a waiver to enlist. Finally, it noted that individuals older than 21 necessitated a wider marketing campaign than the high school demographic due to differences in the communication approaches required.

The preferred employment benefits of graduating high school students and older recruits differ slightly, although there are areas that overlap. For example, the study noted that older recruits are more likely to have student loans that need to be paid off than those recruits who enlisted immediately after high school. Health care, pensions and family or childcare are also benefits that older recruits are more likely to be focused on. Highlighting these other benefits, which is not so standard in targeting high school graduates, would require dedicating marketing resources to them. Based on both RAND studies, a return on investment is probable.

To reach the demographic of older recruits, the 2022 RAND report also recommended expanding the market research to discover the best methods for communicating with this group. As with younger recruits, individuals above 21 years of age increasingly use social media for research and communication; the benefits of marketing through social media are not limited to one demographic.

Overall, the 2022 RAND report recommended that U.S. Army marketing campaigns include information that resonates with older recruits. Potential topics include military occupational specialties (MOS) in support roles or advertising that depicts other benefits, such as education, health care and retirement preparation. And, as noted previously, this report recommended the feasibility of targeting individuals over the age of 21; real benefits can come in expanding marketing beyond the demographic of high school students.

In addition to these RAND studies, other key “literature” on this topic includes a memorandum of understanding (MOU) that was signed between USAREC and U.S. Army Cadet Command (USACC) in October 2021 to facilitate teamwork between the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) and enlisted recruiters.^[12] The article announcing this agreement mentioned that the contact information of students who withdrew from ROTC could be shared with enlisted recruiters to assist with gaining enlistment contacts; but this, by itself, did not provide sufficient evidence that the U.S. Army had figured out marketing to college students who withdrew from school before graduating.^[13] Additionally, the timing of the MOU coincided with the beginning of the 2022 fiscal year (FY), which was one of the four years noted earlier in which the U.S. Army failed to achieve its enlistment quota. There was a similar MOU between USAREC and USACC in November 2018.^[14] In like fashion, it established a partnership that shared information on college campuses to assist both officer and enlisted recruiting.^[15]

Information detailing the success or failure of this program is limited, although one former recruiter, Sergeant First Class Kenneth Rosado, detailed the signing of 38 enlistment contracts that were enabled by the 2018 MOU.^[16] In fact, SFC Rosado’s office was in the ROTC department on the Fullerton campus of California State University, and he worked with the ROTC faculty as an instructor.^[17] It is unclear if the experience of SFC Rosado was a successful test case for a growing initiative or if his circumstances produced an isolated experience of success that cannot be effectively replicated elsewhere. It is likely that his achievements were supported by a combination of the 2018 MOU and his own initiative. Additionally, it does not appear that a marketing campaign existed to support reaching college students who withdrew before graduating.

Both RAND reports noted earlier were produced at the request of the Office of the Secretary of Defense; both indicated an opportunity to market the U.S. Army to a demographic beyond only high school students. While these reports do not directly match the scope of this monograph because they focus on age rather than on education, the demographic of high school graduates who withdraw from college before graduation does overlap with this demographic of older recruits.

Additional research and writing on the U.S. Army’s marketing approach encompasses news articles, press releases and interviews with U.S. Army senior leadership explaining the difficulties experienced in reaching the annual enlistment recruiting quota. For example, during the 2005 recruiting failure, then–USAREC Commanding General Major General Frank Muth discussed difficulties in reaching potential recruits.^[18] Additionally, during FY 2022, then–Major General Johnny Davis, Commanding General of USAREC, discussed barriers toward military service—to include the civilian job market increasing competition for enlistees.^[19] Other topics of discussion include the propensity of individuals to serve in the U.S. Army, the overall job market within the United States and generational aversion to institutions such as the U.S. military. Clearly, none of these topics specifically address U.S. Army marketing, let alone how to expand the scope of marketing. Instead, these articles typically serve merely as explanations for recruiting shortfalls; writing on how the U.S. Army markets itself to its desired demographic is comparatively rare.

One exception to this was a 2023 Army Times interview with then–Secretary of the Army Christine Wormuth. She discussed how the Army was planning to “increase the proportion of enlisted accessions who have at least some college credits from its current twenty percent share of recruits to around thirty-three percent by fiscal year 2028.”^[20] This was part of a larger effort to retool U.S. Army recruiting practices while also restructuring USAREC to report to Headquarters, Department of the Army (HQDA) instead of to U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), as it had previously done. As part of this reorganization, the U.S. Army Enterprise Marketing Office was shifted to report directly to USAREC. This was a major transition that aligned the strategic marketing arm, the Army Enterprise Marketing Office (AEMO), with the tactical efforts of USAREC recruiters.

Background

Over the past 20 years, as noted, the U.S. Army has missed its enlisted recruiting quota four times, with the first shortfall in 2005. On a positive note, it would be 13 years before the quota would be missed again, in 2018.^[21] But the occurrence of the shortfall has been increasingly frequent, with failures both in FY 2022 and in FY 2023.^[22] Clearly, the U.S. Army is struggling to recruit the personnel necessary to accomplish its global mission.

There are numerous explanations to account for these missed targets. These include failure of potential recruits to meet medical or physical entry standards, a low inclination to serve among the general population, a competitive employment market and several other factors.^[23] Secretary of the Army Wormuth specifically said that the U.S. Army needs to update its recruiting practices to better identify future enlistees.^[24] Consequently, recruitment and marketing practices are being updated to closely mirror how the private sector reaches potential applicants.

During previous struggles in meeting the enlisted recruit quota, the U.S. Army lowered its entry standards to increase the pool of available recruits. This reduction in standards was conducted most recently during the global war on terrorism (GWOT) in 2005, when operational demands increased the requirement for personnel to support parallel operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the increase in low-quality recruits resulted in negative long-term results; this “failed” experiment is the reason behind the present-day decision to maintain U.S. Army entry standards. Throughout 2005, the U.S. Army increased its aggregate sum of recruiters with the expectation that increasing the concentration of recruiters in specific areas would drive a corresponding increase in the number of recruits. Additional measures taken in 2005 included recalling over 4,400 Soldiers to active duty from the individual ready reserve, appealing to patriotism and instituting a new marketing campaign. Appeals to patriotism and updates to marketing campaigns are necessary measures that the U.S. Army has implemented in the past to reach its target demographic; they certainly were not unique to 2005.^[25] Significant enlistment bonuses also became commonplace to entice applicants. Despite the high personnel demands of the GWOT, all of these efforts combined to ensure that the U.S. Army got back on track; as noted earlier, it did not miss its annual target again until 2018. 

In 2018, the U.S. Army’s initial recruiting quota was 80,000. This was lowered to 76,500 when forecasts indicated that re-enlistments of current U.S. Army Soldiers meant that fewer recruits were needed. Even so, only 70,000 ended up enlisting that year, leaving a gap of 6,500.^[26] In response, TRADOC led a review of recruiting practices. This was part of a new role for TRADOC, as it had not previously been involved in recruiting. Its updates included the modernization of existing recruiting facilities and placing emphasis on regional marketing opportunities. Regional marketing meant, for example, that potential recruits in the Boston area viewed campaign materials such as commercials depicting the benefits of STEM for U.S. Army Soldiers; alternatively, in the Midwest, the focus was on developing career skills.^[27]

Additionally, 22 cities experiencing population growth were identified as areas where recruiting coverage could be increased. TRADOC also conducted cutting-edge data analysis by zip code to identify the areas where an individual recruiter’s effort would result in added contact with high school youth who fit the U.S. Army’s target demographic. Five hundred recruiters were added to increase recruiting coverage in the vicinity of major cities and also to fill recruiter shortages across the United States. General Stephen Townsend, then–Commanding General of TRADOC, described the U.S. Army’s recruiting model as an “industrial-era model” that forced recruiters to speak with hundreds of individuals to convince just one to sign an enlistment contract. At the macro level, U.S. Army recruiters spoke to approximately 12 million contacts to get 400,000 to schedule an appointment at a recruiting station. Of those, 250,000 took the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), with only 85,000 deciding to enlist out of the original 12 million. This approach to recruiting was inefficient, to say the least; in the face of such troubles, TRADOC’s goal was to develop and institute an improved process.^[28]

The use of social media was encouraged to initiate contact with recruits as the then–head of USAREC, Major General Muth, stated that “today’s youth no longer watch commercial television as much as past generations.”^[29] Moving away from traditional television advertising, the U.S. Army planned to use newer platforms such as Netflix and Hulu that allowed streaming on cell phones and tablets. This update to marketing stemmed from recognition that newer generations of youth received and processed information differently from preceding generations.^[30] The U.S. Army was recognizing that these newer methods were needed to increase awareness of opportunities through service among its target demographic.

Data from between the fall college semesters of 2021 and 2022 indicate that almost 29 percent of first-year students withdrew from college during their first year.^[31] In 2021, approximately 2.7 million individuals graduated from high school in the United States; 1.7 million of them enrolled in college for that fall.^[32] With a 29 percent withdrawal rate, this means that by the beginning of the 2022 academic year, 493,000 had withdrawn from college without graduating. But these former students had achieved a crucial standard for Army enlistment in obtaining a high school diploma or an equivalent; it was clear that conducting marketing activities to reach this demographic would enlarge the pool of potential U.S. Army recruits.

The reaction to recruiting failures in FYs 2022 and 2023 included an update to how the U.S. Army conducts marketing to potential enlisted recruits. As noted, during interviews occurring in 2023, Secretary Wormuth stated that these updates would not include the U.S. Army reducing its standards for entry to make recruiting easier.^[33] The correct solution was to instead modernize its targeting methods to reach a larger share of the labor market.^[34]

Introduction to U.S. Army Marketing

Marketing is the activity conducted to introduce the U.S. Army’s value proposition to prospects, including potential enlisted recruits.^[35] Branding is a subcategory of marketing intended to capture the attention of prospects within the targeted demographic for recruitment. The U.S. Army’s brand includes a yellow star logo accompanied by “U.S. Army” text, which is used across its advertising campaign. The U.S. Army’s current slogan is “Be All You Can Be.”^[36] Both the logo and the slogan historically relate to the Army and enjoy widespread recognition by the public. Through this recognition, the U.S. Army’s brand and slogan are intended to reach its target demographic. A marketing campaign can be adjusted to target and reach an additional demographic—such as students who withdraw from college before graduating. The reason for withdrawing is not necessarily relevant to the method used or updated to communicate to this demographic.

The Army People Strategy of 2019 describes a vision of fielding cohesive teams to contribute to the joint force.^[37] This strategy outlines four goals defined by four lines of effort (LOE): acquire, develop, employ and retain talent. Acquiring talent means that the Army will focus on marketing to personnel who meet six categories of standards, which will be elaborated on in the next section. Within this LOE, the U.S. Army seeks to market, recruit and then train incoming Soldiers. Marketing the Army is the responsibility of AEMO. This organization serves as the strategic marketing arm for the U.S. Army. Its purpose is to attract people to the U.S. Army using a planned campaign designed to reach prospects, planning and executing the U.S. Army’s marketing and advertising programs. Its programs are intended to “identify, nurture, and deliver prioritized leads” to its partners.^[38] AEMO’s partners span several U.S. Army organizations, USACC and USAREC. Each of these organizations has a responsibility to contribute to the U.S. Army reaching its annual personnel quota.

At the strategic level, the U.S. Army’s marketing team conducts research to develop, or, in the current case, to recycle a previously popular and effective branding campaign (“Be All You Can Be” originated in the 1980s). The link in fulfilling personnel requirements rests with U.S. Army recruiters, who are tasked with the responsibility of finding individuals who can meet U.S. Army enlistment qualifications. Recruiters serve at the tactical level, identifying prospects for enlistment. Working toward an established quota, recruiters serve as the initial gatekeepers for potential enlistees using particular screening criteria, covered in the next section.

U.S. Army Entry Requirements

This section will provide an overview of the legal, regulatory (DoD and U.S. Army) and doctrinal (U.S. Army) requirements for a prospective enlistee. Together, these requirements provide a picture of a qualified recruit, i.e., an individual who meets enlistment standards. With such a target defined, the U.S. Army can market to individuals who fit such demographics and standards. Relevant to the purpose of this monograph is the fact that students who withdraw from college before graduating fit within this demographic.

Congress establishes statutes for enlistment eligibility and desirability through passage of United States Code (USC). Title 10 of the USC specifies the U.S. Army’s target demographic by defining the characteristics of a qualified recruit. This statute states that non-prior service enlistees without a high school diploma cannot exceed 35 percent of the U.S. Army’s aggregate end strength, which means that 65 percent of enlistees must have a high school diploma.^[39] Despite this allowance for 35 percent of enlistees to be without a diploma, in actual practice, Army regulations do usually designate a diploma as a requirement—above the standard established by USC. As such, the first major requirement of a qualified recruit is having a high school diploma. A GED is also acceptable, although this makes a recruit a second-tier prospect.^[40]

The second major education requirement is achieving a score above the 31st percentile on the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT).^[41] However, this requirement is at least theoretically conditional. For those only familiar with the ASVAB, it is necessary to explain the AFQT, which is a score derived from a recruit’s ASVAB score. The ASVAB is taken by all enlisted recruits. It features nine sections: word knowledge, arithmetic reasoning, mechanical comprehension, automotive and shop information, electronics information, mathematics knowledge, general science, paragraph comprehension and assembling objects. Scores from four of the nine ASVAB sections are combined to calculate the AFQT score, which is a percentile ranging from one to 99.^[42] High school graduates between the 10th and 31st percentiles can comprise up to 20 percent of enlistments.^[43] In contrast, non–high school graduate recruits are universally ineligible for enlistment if they score below the 31st percentile. Accounting for the convergence between Army regulation and USC, these combined requirements ensure that most enlisted recruits have a high school diploma and score above the 31st percentile of the AFQT. What do these percentages look like in practice? In FY 2021, approximately 54,100 out of 57,600 active U.S. Army recruits had a high school diploma; the remaining 3,500 had a GED.^[44] On the AFQT, just over 35,700 of FY 2021’s recruits scored above the 50th percentile.^[45]

Nested with USC, Army regulations further refine the target demographic for recruits. Each recruit must meet six categories of requirements: age, education, citizenship or legal residency, physical fitness, personal conduct and legal dependency requirements. Recruits aged between 17 and 35 years are eligible for enlistment.^[46] Additionally, recruits must meet the education requirements listed previously and qualify as trainable, which is defined by their AFQT scores. The Army classifies scores in test score categories (TSC) from most to least desirable on a scale from one to five, with TSCs one through three encompassing AFQT scores between the 31^st and 99^th percentiles. Army doctrine classifies AFQT scorers below the 16^th percentile—those in TSC IVB (four B) and V (five)—as not eligible for accession, with a current exception for those enlisting as linguists. As a result, the U.S. Army has strong incentives to focus its marketing and recruitment efforts on high school graduates with a satisfactory AFQT score.

U.S. citizens, lawfully admitted residents and U.S. nationals are all eligible to enlist in the Army. While there was a previous requirement for lawful aliens to obtain citizenship within eight years of enlistment, this requirement was rescinded as of the 2007 version of the applicable regulation. This means that a lawful alien can now serve without having a time limit on becoming a U.S. citizen. Physical fitness standards are intended to ensure that enlistees can safely perform their duties during initial training and subsequent duty. These standards are assessed by medical personnel at a Military Entrance Processing Station (MEPS); they include being free of contagious disease or a condition requiring demanding treatment. Recruits must also be able to fulfill U.S. Army training requirements from a medical perspective without locational limits or worsening existing conditions.^[47] The height of enlistees must be between 58 and 80 inches with a weight below the maximum table weight or a body fat percentage for an enlistee’s age and gender.^[48]

Legal dependency requirements are established to ensure that a recruit can attend and complete initial entry training as well as meet mission requirements of a term of enlistment afterward. This means a recruit can enlist if unmarried without dependents, married with not more than two dependents or unmarried and paying child support for their dependents. All recruits are also required to pass a background check for previous arrests, legal charges or convictions and traffic violations.^[49] Waivers may be authorized to allow entrance into the Army for certain situations, allowing exceptions within these six categories, but that topic is outside the scope of this monograph. Establishing the legal and regulatory requirements that personnel must meet to enlist in the U.S. Army facilitates a transition to service priorities and subsequently whom the U.S. Army markets to encourage individuals to visit a recruiter and eventually enlist. In summary, between USC, DoD regulation, Army regulations and civilian leadership, the U.S. Army requires successful recruits to meet the criteria listed in the figure below.

Table 1
Abbreviated List of U.S. Army Entry Requirements^[50]

The U.S. Army’s Entry into Marketing

On 27 January 1973, then–Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird announced the end of the U.S. military’s use of the draft. This marked the beginning of the all-volunteer force, in place today, and was certainly welcoming to individuals who do not graduate college. Legislation to end the draft had been signed almost a year and a half earlier, on 28 September 1971, with President Richard Nixon placing conscription on “standby.” As a presidential candidate, Nixon had argued that the draft was “a system of compulsory service that arbitrarily selects some and not others [and] simply cannot be squared with our whole concept of liberty, justice and equality under the law.” Consequently, after 1973, the U.S. Army found itself having to attract new enlisted recruits without the assistance of the military draft. This transition continued through the Nixon, Ford, Carter and Reagan administrations, with heavy involvement from Congress through its Defense Manpower Commission, which was established to reduce personnel costs while still recruiting sufficient end strength.^[51]

As part of the transition from the draft, the U.S. Army began contracting with the marketing company N.W. Ayer & Son in January 1971 for the purpose of appealing to new recruits. The U.S. Army’s entry into civilian marketing was not seamless; one of N.W. Ayer & Son’s first tasks was to push past the slogan of “Your Future, Your Decision, Choose Army,” which had been ineffective. Additionally, selling the U.S. Army’s value proposition at that time was a difficult endeavor due to popular opinion of military service during the Vietnam War decreasing. Opposition to the war made it a difficult period to obtain recruits.

Another challenge was in competing with established corporations that were more experienced in marketing. The U.S. Army also had difficulties obtaining and maintaining Congressional approval for paid marketing given that the chair of the House Armed Services Committee, Felix Edward Hebert, opposed the idea—even after several ads were run as part of a successful pilot program. Representative Hebert believed that the U.S. military should not have to pay any Federal Communications Commission licensee for advertising since the companies operated on public airways; this meant that advertising was restricted to print media when Hebert blocked additional funding. Hebert’s opposition remained in place, despite other parties urging that a broader advertising approach was essential to fulfilling enlistment requirements of the new all-volunteer force.

The next marketing campaign, launched in 1971, featured the slogan “Today’s Army Wants to Join You.”^[52] This slogan was generally well received by recruits, but funding opposition by Hebert ended its airtime even though it continued to be used in print ads. Though this is not a familiar slogan today, the U.S. Army achieved its 1973–1976 recruiting mission under its next slogan: “Join the People Who’ve Joined the Army.” “This is the Army” followed in 1978; unfortunately, this corresponded with the subsequent shortfall of 17,000 recruits in 1979. By this time, the U.S. Army had gained the ability to use the advertising methods previously denied by Representative Hebert as the head of the House Armed Services Committee. Overall, these slogans represented the beginning of the U.S. Army’s marketing efforts toward its target demographic of high school students.^[53]

The U.S. Army looked inward to devise a strategy for fulfilling its personnel requirements by continuing its partnership with N.W. Ayer & Son and by selecting a new commanding general to standardize and lead its recruiting efforts. Major General Maxwell Thurman began his tenure as the USAREC Commanding General in November 1979. His selection closely coincided with the U.S. Army missing its 1979 enlistment quota. The quota for 1980 was reached, but not without controversy, as only 54 percent of enlistees were high school graduates who had the AFQT scores preferred by the U.S. Army. Concurrent with an in-depth look at how U.S. Army recruiting brigades, battalions and individual recruiters executed their mission, the U.S. Army continued its work with N.W. Ayer & Son on its marketing plan. Several attempts were required to develop a successful marketing campaign that could resonate with the targeted demographic.

 Although the relationship with N.W. Ayer & Son resulted in four different branding slogans, the one that really resonated with the public and ended up holding sway for 20 years was “Be All You Can Be.” Premiering during 1981’s slate of college football bowl games, it was one of four finalists. The others included “Join tomorrow today” and “The advantage of your age and army. We’ll show you how.” The longevity of “Be All You Can Be” is partly attributed to its appeal to multiple demographics. The intent of this slogan could mean many things, ranging from learning a trade, establishing a career path, earning college benefits or serving one’s country. Having a broad appeal meant that various potential recruits could view themselves through any of these lenses.^[54]

This review of the U.S. Army’s entry into marketing reveals that the U.S. Army’s target demographic, based on age, has not really changed significantly since the beginning of the all-volunteer force. Though there have been times of missed quotas or enlistment of lower quality recruits, the U.S. Army has generally maintained a similar target of high school students and continued to use targeted marketing campaigns to achieve its quota. During periods when quotas were missed, U.S. Army leadership and Congress sought solutions to then-contemporary recruiting concerns; these will be explored using the most recent four years when U.S. Army recruiting did not achieve its annual enlistment quota.

U.S. Army Recruiting in 2005

As mentioned earlier, the U.S. Army fell short of its 2005 goal of 80,000 recruits by a margin of 6,600.^[55] As detailed in the introduction, there were approximately 364,000 individuals—former college students who had withdrawn before graduating—who could have been targeted to assist in filling the recruiting gap. Akin to the atmosphere experienced during the height of the Vietnam War, the U.S. Army in 2005 was viewed as a troubled brand; the population of the United States was witnessing daily media updates depicting the violence experienced by U.S. Soldiers during concurrent operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, with increasing casualties broadcast throughout the news media.^[56]

What was happening on the marketing front during this time? The long-running “Be All You Can Be” campaign had concluded in 2001, and advertising firm Leo Burnett, Inc., developed “An Army of ONE” as a replacement.^[57] The word ONE was an acronym that stood for officers, non-commissioned officers and enlisted. This slogan was intended to depict an individual’s team contribution by accentuating the personal perspective of serving in a large army, counteracting the idea that Soldiers gave up their individuality by enlisting.^[58]

The campaign used real Soldiers instead of actors in its commercials, and the Army chose to premiere it during an episode of the television show, Friends, rather than during sporting events as was done with previous campaigns.^[59] Each commercial was developed to resonate with young adults ages 18–20.^[60] However, contrary to the marketing intent, viewers received a message conveying the significance of the individual above the team, which resulted in the campaign facing considerable criticism and confusion. U.S. Army Secretary Wormuth described “An Army of ONE” as puzzling, while former Sergeant Major of the Army Michael Grinston said he was “initially confused” while watching the premier advertisement of a lone Soldier running through the desert. Despite the initial positive outlook conveyed by then–Army leaders, as soon as 2005, a new marketing campaign was under development with the goal of better communicating with potential recruits.^[61]

The Army’s new marketing agency, McCann Worldgroup, developed “Army Strong” as the new replacement slogan. “Army Strong” was intended to positively influence family members and, in turn, to reduce parental or family opposition to enlistment in the U.S. Army. In courting the people who could directly impact recruits, the U.S. Army sought to educate parents and family members about the benefits of serving in U.S. Army—while downplaying the risks of the GWOT, which was ongoing at the time. Rather than displaying high school students requesting permission from their parents, these advertisements depicted young adults asking questions about the U.S. Army experience. Each advertisement concluded with a display of web-based resources and a toll-free phone number to contact a local recruiter. The advertisements corresponded with U.S. Army sponsorship of events and were featured on billboards, mailings, radio and television. As with previous marketing campaigns, however, “Army Strong” was directed toward the high school student demographic, limited in that it did not target that demographic of students who had withdrawn from college before graduating. Nevertheless, the campaign was successful in that the U.S. Army achieved its enlistment quota shortly after launching it; this success continued until 2018.^[62]

U.S. Army Recruiting in 2018

More than 3.2 million students graduated from high school in 2017.^[63] Of these graduates, approximately 1.6 million enrolled in college that same year, but 320,000 of them had withdrawn from college by the following year.^[64] This group of former students no longer fit the U.S. Army’s target demographic of high school students, but they would still potentially be eligible to enlist. As with the recruiting environment in 2005, these individuals could have been targeted for enlistment to help decrease the recruiting shortage in 2018 if only there had been a marketing campaign to directly communicate with them.

During 2018, USAREC began to participate in online gaming and live athletic competitions to reach recruits. As part of this strategy, the U.S. Army provided teams to compete in games such as Madden Football and Fortnite. In-person recruiting teams competed in events such as the CrossFit games, while U.S. Army units such as the Golden Knights parachute team and Army Marksmanship Unit traveled throughout the United States to showcase the U.S. Army. A uniformed U.S. Army recruiter even served as an announcer at a tournament for the reality television show The Ultimate Fighter. Similar to what the “An Army of ONE” campaign intended, getting U.S. Soldiers integrated among the target demographic was a means of demonstrating that an individual could enlist in the U.S. Army “team” and yet still maintain individual hobbies and interests.

The significance of social media was also recognized by USAREC in 2018. Major General Muth, then–Commanding General of USAREC, explained that platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram would also be used to connect with prospects. However, these methods were still just intended to reach the high school demographic; Muth specifically suggested that recruiters follow up on “likes” received on recruitment stations’ Facebook pages after high school visits or events by reaching out to potential recruits directly through the social media platform’s messaging feature.^[65] Using social media in lieu of traditional telephone calls was also a response to individuals using messaging apps and no longer answering phone calls from unknown contacts. The use of apps and social media also modernized how recruiters operated by increasing efficiency; confirmed interest through a Facebook page provided more efficiency than could possibly be achieved in cold calling high school students whose names were posted on a roster of graduating seniors.

The U.S. Army marketing campaign of 2018 was “Warriors Wanted.” This was not intended to be a replacement for the slogan “Army Strong”; rather, it was supposed to be a glimpse of a “modern, ready and lethal force.”^[66] The premiere of the “Warriors Wanted” advertisement was fittingly delivered online through social media and then followed up via television.^[67] Research for these commercials had begun as early as 2015, when the Army Marketing and Research Group, working with McCann Worldgroup, developed a marketing campaign to embrace the team concept, completing a reversal of the “Army of One” campaign’s poorly received message and continuing to build on “Army Strong,” underscoring the concept of the team over the individual. The new slogan was a reaction to the market research that had recognized Generation Z as the target demographic.^[68] Generation Z encompasses individuals born between 1997 and 2012; as of 2025, the oldest individuals of this generation are 28, which falls within the age window for U.S. Army enlistment.^[69] The Army Marketing and Research Group found that one of the primary motivators for Generation Z is wanting to make a difference for their families and their community.^[70] As a result, U.S. Army marketing efforts have pivoted to emphasize Generation Z’s values over those of millennials (born between 1981 and 1996). Though there is overlap in the values of both generations, data suggests that millennials ultimately prioritize income over intangible benefits.^[71] The age of millennials ranges between 29 and 44 years during the time of this writing; a little less than half of that generation is still able to enlist, given that the maximum age for initial recruits is 35.

The 2018 recruiting period also saw the release of a YouTube series titled “I Became a Soldier,” which added a personal element to the U.S. Army marketing strategy.^[72] Through short video clips, interested individuals could hear the perspectives of currently serving Soldiers without the message being clouded by the cinematic experience that accompanied television commercials. Instead of committing to having a recruiter contact them, interested recruits could first browse from a library of short videos to gain understanding and prepare their own questions based on a more personal style of marketing. Overall, these commercials were marketed toward the traditional high school and immediately post–high school age demographic (ages 17 to 24), but still not specifically to the students who had recently withdrawn from college without graduating.

In the following two years, 2019–2021, the Army successfully hit its recruitment goals. During this period, the marketing campaign was titled “What’s Your Warrior?” It provided a personal look at Soldiers in five different occupational specialties, organized by chapters that introduced each of them.^[73] These advertisements were intended to introduce the U.S. population to Soldiers who were not all serving in combat arms, revealing to Generation Z the menu of job options available for a new Soldier. During a preview of the “What’s Your Warrior?” campaign, then–Chief of Army Marketing Major General Alex Fink stated, “We’re just trying to make it relevant to consider service in the military, whether it’s for one term or for a career.” With the wide range of service possibilities highlighted to potential recruits, this campaign continued with the theme of getting to know the person behind the U.S. Army uniform.

U.S. Army Recruiting in 2022 and 2023

The U.S. Army’s enlisted recruiting quota in 2022 was 60,000; it fell short by approximately 15,000.^[74] As previously noted, from the total pool of 2021 U.S. high school graduates, approximately 493,000 of them who had initially gone on to college opted to withdraw sometime in their freshman year. And USAREC did not target them.

It was during this period, however, that new material was consistently released on digital media, such as YouTube. The “What’s Your Warrior?” campaign started a second chapter in January 2021; this time, it profiled 12 then–currently serving Soldiers who were in varying occupational specialties.^[75] As before, each video was intended to demonstrate the variety of occupational specialties available to potential recruits and to highlight the backgrounds of people who had decided to join the U.S. Army. Soldiers who worked as intelligence analysts, cyber specialists and engineers spoke about their experiences.^[76] Overall, these profiles had the effect of reducing the unknowns of what life is like for a typical Soldier. The library of videos, still available, is on the GoArmy YouTube channel; they are viewable for anyone interested in discovering more about serving in the U.S. Army—and are especially useful for individuals who want to learn more but are not yet ready for that initial commitment of contact with an actual recruiter.^[77]

Most recently, 2023’s enlisted recruiting goal was 65,000 recruits, which was missed by approximately 11,000.^[78] Approximately three million students graduated from high school in 2022; just under two million of them enrolled in college for the fall 2022 semester.^[79] And by the fall 2023 semester, approximately 456,000 of them had left college. This means that roughly a quarter of college freshman drop out each year, although that number spiked up to almost 29 percent in the 2021 and 2022 academic years, an increase that may be explained by the COVID-19 pandemic’s influence on the ability to continue college due to health, economic or other reasons.^[80]

As with the previous three recruiting years outlined in this monograph, the U.S. Army spent FY 2023 conducting efforts to reach potential recruits that were similar to efforts of previous years. Overall, this effort equated to increased resources to implement the same marketing methods already used rather than trying something new to target the missed demographic.

U.S. Army Recruiting in 2023 & Beyond

In 2023, then–Secretary of the Army Wormuth and Chief of Staff of the Army General Randy George commissioned a study group led by then–U.S. Army G1, Lieutenant General Douglas Stitt, that focused on transforming the recruiting enterprise. This was a response not only to the failure to reach the 2023 recruiting quota, but also to a marketing data study that West Point’s Office of Economic and Manpower Analysis provided to Secretary Wormuth. A focus on recruits with some college education also resulted from this study, as it was noted that 50 percent of recruits were being sourced from approximately only 15–20 percent of the labor market. Additional changes included the elevation of USAREC to a three-star command that reports to HQDA and a shift for AEMO to report directly to USAREC.^[81] While commenting on the fact that the 2024 quota had been reached, then–Major General Davis stated that an “all-of-Army approach” was used.^[82]

Benefits of Enlisting After Completing Some College

The U.S. Army already offers benefits to individuals who have increased levels of education, even if those individuals have not gone so far as earning an associate or bachelor’s degree. The Army could engage with more potential recruits if it did a better job of informing the civilian population about these various benefits through its marketing efforts. If a recruit has completed some college credits and has previously participated in either Junior or Senior ROTC, he or she can enlist at an advanced rank and pay grade—provided their educational institution is a listed as an Accredited Institution of Postsecondary Education.^[83] Twenty-four college credits enables a recruit to join as a private second class (E-2) rather than as a private (E-1), while completing 48 credit hours or possessing an associate’s degree makes a recruit eligible to enter as a private first class (E-3). Recruits who owe tuition money to their institution and do not have access to their official transcript can still earn these benefits by providing a letter from the institution that states the credit completion status and the reason for not releasing a transcript. Clearly, the Army is motivated to be flexible in assisting recruits with gaining the most benefits they can for enlisting. The completion of three years of Junior ROTC or one year of Senior ROTC also enables entry as a private second class. Finally, completing two years of Senior ROTC or a two-year vocational school program (after high school) earns the rank of private first class upon entry. Joining the U.S. Army with additional rank equates to higher income—a tangible benefit that matters when trying to convince a prospect of the value of enlisting. These known opportunities and benefits can be better communicated to the general public through already-available advertising examples.

Student loan repayment is another benefit that can be better communicated through already-extent marketing channels. The program is not new, but potential recipients may not be aware of it. Highlighting this benefit could assist in communicating the value proposition of U.S. Army service—especially because a former college student may have loans become due because of their change in student status. As part of an enlistment contract, the U.S. Army can repay loans made through federal lending programs under its College Loan Repayment Program. As with any benefits, there is of course fine print attached, which includes both that the loans be in good standing and that the U.S. Army does not make interest or fee payments. On each annual anniversary of enlistment, the U.S. Army will pay one-third of the balance or $1,500, whichever amount is greater. The payments are considered taxable income on both state and federal returns, but this is still an overall benefit. The total benefit will repay up to $65,000 over a three-year enlistment.

Since at least 2019, U.S. Army senior leaders have recognized that outstanding student loans were an issue capable of attracting recruits. Major General Muth, then–Commanding General of USAREC, noted, “One of the national crises right now is student loans; $31,000 is the average.”^[84] This comment was made during a successful recruiting year when senior leaders canvassed major cities such as New York City, Boston and Chicago, assisting with recruiting and touting benefits such as the GI Bill and skills transferable to the private sector after service in the U.S. Army. Muth later mentioned, “You can get out after four years, one hundred percent paid for state college anywhere in the United States.” The recognition of loan repayment as a relevant benefit offers additional evidence toward committing marketing resources to students who withdraw from college before graduating.

Reaching Students Recently Withdrawn from College

As has been reviewed in this monograph, the marketing campaigns developed since 2019 have sought to depict the U.S. Army from a personal point of view. Rather than only seeing demolition, airborne operations, combat arms action scenes, etc., target audiences have been presented with more about the backgrounds and motivations of the Soldiers depicted in marketing campaigns. This provides relatability. This perspective is necessary to reach an individual who may not know enough about the U.S. Army to be interested in watching the action-based commercials; such scenes are not so likely to be successful on their own. While this point of view is engaging to many, additional topics can be covered in a U.S. Army commercial or digital short to connect with that missed target demographic of students who withdrew from college before graduating.

For example: The television screen fades to black then switches to a commercial during a break in a viewer’s favorite show. The ensuing scene opens with a gloomy winter sky, and the viewer sees two characters walking away from a typical college campus. A young woman, Emma, is looking down in despair, holding a notebook and a couple of textbooks. Her friend, Josh, seemingly seeks to comfort her. Dialogue begins with Emma expressing frustration that she can no longer afford to continue college after four years of part-time study that has been consistently interrupted by temporary, gig-economy jobs—which failed to offer either longevity or upward mobility. Emma’s parents can no longer afford to help either, as she has younger siblings who also require financial support. Instead, Emma needs to find a full-time job; it’s time to shelve her dreams of completing a bachelor’s degree. She tells Josh that she has loans to pay, which have been accruing interest since her first semester. Emma’s loans will enter their payback period once she is no longer an active student, and she lacks confidence that she will be able to pay them off. She voices the idea that she has been wasting her time and has nothing to show for it. She has not completed sufficient credits for obtaining even an associate’s degree.

Josh asks if she’s spoken to a mutual friend, Taylor, who joined the U.S. Army after experiencing a similar situation. Emma says she has not, so Josh encourages her to reach out to him. In the next scene, we see Taylor explaining the benefits of her potential new career path over a video call. He tells her about 30 vacation days per year, student loan repayment, enlistment station of choice and other highlights. The ensuing scene depicts Emma scanning U.S. Army recruiting videos on YouTube before she navigates to a link to contact a recruiter on the GoArmy website; she seems to have subdued yet renewed confidence in her future.

Such a commercial does not actually exist, but it could. This is one way the U.S. Army could market itself to this missed demographic of college students who have withdrawn before graduating. These individuals will likely be in the U.S. Army’s overall target demographic for enlistment based just on their age of 17–24 years old, but they are in a different position in life from immediate high school grads and GED earners and should therefore be pursued differently. In just that 30–60 seconds, Emma was introduced to a career concept she had not previously considered. The content of an advertisement to a different group that includes former students like Emma could resonate with others experiencing similar situations.

Conclusion

The U.S. Army is experienced in conducting marketing activities. Between its internal experience and that gained from working with its contracted marketing agency, there is a path to expand the pool of potential recruits through developing messaging that speaks to more target demographics than only high school students. A narrative that demonstrates the hardship and adversity of today’s youth sounds negative, but it offers a message that others can relate to. Relatability is what the U.S. Army requires to invoke a concrete response to its materials.

As discussed, the U.S. Army’s target demographic has historically been people aged 17–24; what does this say about its marketing efforts? People with some college fit within this age group, but there is a difference between the message used to communicate values, interests or concerns to someone fresh out of high school as opposed to someone who has attended college and is a bit older, often both in age and experience. Life experience and maturing occurs at the end of the teenage years and into a person’s twenties, impacting how a person responds to marketing efforts. If marketing efforts segmented ages 17–24 to hit more pertinent topics for specific cohorts—such as the group who has withdrawn from college before graduating— reaching the U.S. Army’s personnel requirements would be a lot easier.

The U.S. Army marketing campaigns conducted from 2005 to 2023 illustrate a progression that began with depicting the significance of individuals over the team and then moved to a perspective to inform potential recruits on how much a team can accomplish together. A natural progression for future marketing campaigns would be to highlight how individuals can turn their lives around using opportunities afforded and earned during military service. As noted previously, approximately 24 percent of freshman college students drop out each year.^[85] This means that an advertisement campaign with a theme of overcoming academic or financial adversity through U.S. Army service has the potential to resonate with several hundred thousand people each year. Producing advertisements that resonate with people who have withdrawn from college without a degree adds a market segment not previously explored: the students discussed throughout this monograph. Any of these former students can be the right person, for the right position, that the U.S. Army is looking for.

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Author Biography

Major William (Bill) Barna is currently serving as a G5 Intelligence Planner for the 10th Mountain Division and is a 2024 graduate of the Advanced Military Studies Program within the School of Advanced Military Studies. As an intelligence officer, he has served in the 201st Battlefield Surveillance Brigade, I Corps Headquarters,10th Mountain Division, and in the Mission Command Training Program. Bill served as a wheeled vehicle mechanic from 2004–2008, both in the 82nd Airborne Division and 1st Armored Division, before being awarded a Green to Gold scholarship. He is from Long Island, and he is an alumnus of the Isenberg School of Management at UMass Amherst, where he earned an MBA, and of Hofstra University, where he earned a BA in Political Science and commissioned as a Military Intelligence Officer through its ROTC program. His education also includes an MA from the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. He and his beautiful wife, Jami, have three wonderful children.

Notes